The Telephone Conversation by Wole Soyinka Essay

The Nigerian dramatist Wole Soyinka ( born 1935 ) was one of the few African authors to denounce the motto of Negritude as a tool of autarchy. He besides was the first black African to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. Wole Soyinka was born July 13. 1934 in Abeokuta a small town on the Bankss of the River Ogun in the western country of Nigeria. His female parent was a Christian convert so devout that he nicknamed her â€Å"Wild Christian† and he father was the scholarly schoolmaster of a Christian primary school whom he nicknamed â€Å"Essay†Ã¢â‚¬â€œa drama on his business and his initials S. A. Soyinka was educated through the secondary degree in Ibadan and subsequently attended University College. Ibadan. and the University of Leeds. from which he graduated with awards. He worked for a brief period at the Royal Court Theatre in London before returning to Nigeria in 1960. His drama. â€Å"The Invention† was staged in 1957 at the Royal Court Theatre. At that clip his merely published plants were verse forms such as â€Å"The Immigrant† and â€Å"My Next Door Neighbour. † which appeared in the magazine Black Orpheus. The declining political state of affairs in Nigeria was reflected in Soyinka’s subject for Kongi’s Harvest. foremost performed at the Dakar Festival of Negro Arts in 1965. The subject was the constitution of a absolutism in an African province ; and the corruptible politician. the uncommitted. corrupt traditional swayer. and the pitilessness of a adult male driven toward power were all displayed. In Idanre and Other Poems. published in 1967. Soyinka ceased being a ironist and became a glooming visionary. The rubric verse form. declaiming a creative activity myth. stressed the symbols of fire. Fe. and blood. which were cardinal to the poet’s position of the modern African universe. Soyinka became a vocal critic of Negritude. impeaching politicians of utilizing it as a mask for autarchy. His increasing usage of polemic against societal unfairness and his demands for freedom coincided with the military coup d'etat in Nigeria and the ulterior impetus toward civil war. Soyinka was arrested by the Nigerian authorities in October 1967. was accused of descrying for Biafra. and was kept in detainment in the North for two old ages. after which he returned to his place as caput of the play section at Ibadan. Much of his originative attending following his release went into shooting Kongi’s Harvest. in which he besides played the prima function. Soyinka’s Nigeria was a state in passage. trying to model itself out of a assortment of tribal civilizations and a disruptive European colonisation. Soyinka did non romanticise his native land. nor was he willing to see African civilization as a level symbol of crudeness. He was as willing to bear down Nigerian politicians and administrative officials with atrocity and corruptness as he was to reprobate the greed and phil istinism of the West. These attitudes were even more prevailing after his 2nd captivity on the trumped up spying charges. His work took on a darker and angrier tone. When he was released from prison in 1969. Soyinka left Nigeria and did non return until the authorities changed in 1975. Soyinka’s prison journal. published in 1972 The Man Died: Prison Notes of Wole Soyinka was a disconnected and inexorable history of the yearss he spent incarcerated. frequently in ironss. Along with his poetries that captured the kernel of his prison experience. The Man Died provided priceless context for Soyinka’s subsequent imagination in his plants. Soyinka’s post-prison plants striked readers as more angry and despairing than his earlier 1s. The drama Madmen and Specialists was about a immature physician who returned from war trained in the ways of anguish and patterns his new accomplishments on his apparently huffy old male parent. Charles Larson in New York Times Review of Books called the drama â€Å"a merchandise of those months Soyinka spent in prison. in lone parturiency. as a political captive. It is. non surprisingly. the most barbarous societal unfavorable judgment he has of all time published. † Yet non all his station prison plants were filled with desperation. Ake: The Old ages of Childhood and its prequel Isara: A Ocean trip around Essay were beautiful memoirs of both his ain childhood with its strong Yoruba background and his father’s young person in a changing Nigeria. Isara. published in 1988 after his father’s decease. reconstructed his father’s divided life and tried to accommodate two conflicting cultures–African and Western-that trapped him between. In 1986 Soyinka was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in acknowledgment of his achievements. The choice commission recognized him for his committedness to render the full complexness of his African civilization In add-on to his literary end product. Soyinka had produced two essay aggregations that define his literary doctrine Myth Literature and the African World ( 1976 ) and Art Dialog and Outrage ( 1991. 1994 ) in which Soyinka asserted that critics must near African literature on its ain footings instead than by criterions established in western civilizations. African literature was non massive and needs to be seen as a assortment of voices. non simply one talker. In The Open Sore of a Continent: A Personal Narrative of the Nigerian Crisis ( 1996 ) . Soyinka looked at Nigeria’s absolutism and inquiries the corrupt authorities. the thoughts of patriotism. and international intercession. The Burden of Memory. the Muse of Forgiveness ( 1998 ) . Soyinka’s subsequence to The Open Sore. considered the whole of Africa and considers how there can be rapprochement between victims and oppressors. In 2001. the University Press of Mississippi published Conversations with Wole Soyinka In 1998. Soyinka ended a four-year self-imposed expatriate from Nigeria. His expatriate can be traced back to 1993. when a democratically elective authorities was to hold assumed power. Alternatively. General Ibrahim Babangida. who had ruled the state for eight old ages. prohibited the publication of the vote consequences and installed his deputy. General Sani Abacha. as caput of the Nigerian province. Soyinka. along with other pro-democracy militants. was charged with lese majesty for his unfavorable judgment of the military government. Faced with a decease sentence. Soyinka went into expatriate in 1994. during which clip he traveled and lectured in Europe and the United States. Following the decease of Abacha. who held control for five old ages. the new authorities. led by General Abdulsalem Abubakar. released legion political captives and promised to keep civilian elections. Soyinka’s return to his fatherland renewed hope for a democratic Nigerian province. Prejudice in Telephone Conversation and Dinner Guest-Me: In ‘Telephone Conversation’ and ‘Dinner Guest-Me’ each poet uses their poesy as a agency of facing and disputing bias. In ‘Telephone Conversation’ by Wole Soyinka. a phone conversation takes topographic point between an African adult male and a really unreal lady about leasing out a room. When the lady finds out he is African she becomes really prejudiced and racist towards him. Similarly ‘Dinner Guest-Me’ by Langston Hughes is about a black adult male traveling to a dinner party where he is the merely colored individual at that place. like he is the ‘token black. ’ Anger and a sense of temper are shown in both the verse forms. In ‘Telephone Conversation’ . the African adult male is angry at the â€Å"peroxide blond† and is disgusted at her for being so ill-mannered and racist towards him. â€Å"HOW DARK? ARE YOU LIGHT OR VERY DARK? † The capital letters emphasise the volume in her voice. whereas. in Langston Hughes poem the other dinner invitees are non being prejudiced to the lone black dinner guest straight. Although they would inquire him â€Å"the usual inquiries that affected him. it is full of biass. Wole Soyinka’s â€Å"Telephone Conversation† is an facile exchange of duologue between a dark West African adult male and his British landlady that inexorably verges on the inquiry of apartheid. The poet makes usage of the most articulate agencies to aerate his positions. through that of a telephone conversation. where there is instant and natural discussion. It exhibits a one-to-one correspondence between the two. The interaction between a coloured and a white person at one time assumes cosmopolitan overtones. At the beginning. the poet says that the monetary value seemed sensible and the location ‘indifferent’ . Note that as a word. even though it denotes being ‘unbiased’ . it is a word with negative intensions. However. as we come across the Landlady’s biased nature. the word ‘indifferent’ additions positive overtones ; it is better than being impartial. The lady swears that she lived ‘off premises’ . Nevertheless. the really facet of his coloring material poses a job to her. far from her promise to stay distant. Nothing remains for the poet. he says. but confession. It gives a image of him sitting in a confessional. when he hasn’t committed any offense. His offense is his coloring material ; his compunction is solutionless. He tells the lady that he hates a otiose journey. Possibly his words connote more than he literally signifies. The poet seems to be tired of his life conditioned by racialist biass. As he mentions that he is a West African. the lady is crammed with silence. but a silence that speaks volumes. A telephone is an instrument that chiefly transmits voices ; here it becomes a medium for silence besides. The alleged civilised universe has these soundless. powerful issues that need to be voiced. Here. the silence reverberations. It is a silence that is the effect of her sophisticated upbringing. However. her biass transcend her to primitivism life in the superstitious narrowness of caste and coloring material. When the voice eventually came. it was ‘lip-stick coated’ . good made-up and diplomatic to accommodate an affected ambiance. The inevitable inquiry eventually comes across: â€Å"Are you dark? Or really light? † The poet views it as button B or Button A. The inquiry places two options before him: dark or visible radiation. the truth or prevarications. The first option would evidently close off all doors to him. The term Button B besides is the button in the public telephone box to acquire the money back. Button A is the 1 to link the call. The poet first ponders on the Button B to acquire out of his quandary. He so realizes that escape is non the solution. and decides to confront the state of affairs. The words: â€Å"Stench /Of rancid breath of public hide-and-speak† signify the claustrophobic nature of the inquiries instead than the ambiance ( i. e. . inside the telephone box ) . The coloring material ‘red’ in â€Å"Red booth. Red pillar box. Red double-tiered† forebode cautiousness. The inquiries were excessively naked to be true. The talker at last brings himself to believe them. His response is really witty: â€Å"You mean-like field or milk cocoa? † This is the most disposed response as dark cocoa is surely more alluring than apparent cocoa. Her disinterested blessing of the inquiry was like that of a clinical physician made immune to human emotions through experience. Human hurting and wretchedness has a impregnation point ; after a certain point people tend to jest at their ain torment. As the stating goes: Be a God. and laugh at Yourself. The talker therefore begins basking the state of affairs and confuses the lady on the other side. He asserts: â€Å"‘West African sepia’-and as an afterthought ‘Down in my passport. ’† . to farther confuse her. Silence for spectroscopic Flight of illusion. till truthfulness clanged her accent Hard on the mouthpiece. â€Å"What’s that? † professing â€Å"Don’t cognize what that is. † â€Å"Like brunette. † â€Å"That’s dark. isn’t it? † â€Å"Not wholly. Facially. I am brunette. but. dame. you should see The remainder of me. Palm of my manus. colloidal suspensions of my pess Are a peroxide blond. Clash. caused- Foolishly. madam-by sitting down. has turned My bottom raven black-One minute. dame! †-sensing Her receiving system raising on the thunderclap About my ears-â€Å"Madam. † I pleaded. â€Å"wouldn’t you instead See for yourself? † The last lines brink on coarseness. but merely out of indignation. The assorted feelings. the random and broken sentences. the deficiency of coherency is speech. the question-answer manner are all typical of a telephone conversation that reverberates more than it sounds. The verse form is genuinely astonishing. The sarcastic duologue adds temper to a topic that is otherwise non. The manner he presents the truth of racial favoritism in the name of skin coloring material. utilizing humour Tells the illustriousness of the poet and his fantastic manner. It’s certainly a nice verse form on racism supported by the graphic image that Wole Soyinka creates in the readers’ heads by showing his verse form in a free poetry conversation manner. It is a nice attack in exemplifying the racism in the Old English times. Subject: â€Å"Telephone Conversation† by Wole Soyinka is a poem that’s rubric is really insouciant and consecutive forward. The poem’s rubric shows the reader that what they are meant to read is realistic and free flowing. Like most verse forms there is a general subject that is carried on from start to stop. The verse form â€Å"Telephone Conversation† has two chief obvious subjects ; these are racism and the deficiency of instruction and apprehension that some people may hold. As the reader reads through the drama they become cognizant that the character is African and hence has a darker tegument tone than white skinned people. The poet has given the character every bit good as the landlady different signifiers of address. The character appears to talk a little more officially than the landlady and this could possibly be to miss of instruction and understanding towards the landlady or even that she feels the character is ill-defined of the English linguistic communication. The character tends to be more formal and uses more official ways of speech production.

Discount rate

The rate used to discount future cash flows to their present values is a key variable of this process. A firm's weighted average cost of capital (after tax) is often used, but many people believe that it is appropriate to use higher discount rates to adjust for risk or other factors. A variable discount rate with higher rates applied to cash flows occurring further along the time span might be used to reflect the yield curve premium for long-term debt. Another approach to choosing the discount rate factor is to decide the rate which the capital needed for the project could return if invested in an alternative venture. If, for example, the capital required for Project A can earn five percent elsewhere, use this discount rate in the NPV calculation to allow a direct comparison to be made between Project A and the alternative. Related to this concept is to use the firm's Reinvestment Rate. Reinvestment rate can be defined as the rate of return for the firm's investments on average. When analyzing projects in a capital constrained environment, it may be appropriate to use the reinvestment rate rather than the firm's weighted average cost of capital as the discount factor. It reflects opportunity cost of investment, rather than the possibly lower cost of capital. An NPV calculated using variable discount rates (if they are known for the duration of the investment) better reflects the real situation than one calculated from a constant discount rate for the entire investment duration. Refer to the tutorial article written by Samuel Baker[3] for more detailed relationship between the NPV value and the discount rate. For some professional investors, their investment funds are committed to target a specified rate of return. In such cases, that rate of return should be selected as the discount rate for the NPV calculation. In this way, a direct comparison can be made between the profitability of the project and the desired rate of return. To some extent, the selection of the discount rate is dependent on the use to which it will be put. If the intent is simply to determine whether a project will add value to the company, using the firm's weighted average cost of capital may be appropriate. If trying to decide between alternative investments in order to maximize the value of the firm, the corporate reinvestment rate would probably be a etter choice. Using variable rates over time, or discounting â€Å"guaranteed† cash flows differently from â€Å"at risk† cash flows may be a superior methodology, but is seldom used in practice. Using the discount rate to adjust for risk is often difficult to do in practice (especially internationally), and is difficult to do well. An alternative to using discount factor to adjust for risk is to explicitly correct the cash flows for the risk elements using rNPV or a similar method, then discount at the firm's rate. Discount rate The rate used to discount future cash flows to their present values is a key variable of this process. A firm's weighted average cost of capital (after tax) is often used, but many people believe that it is appropriate to use higher discount rates to adjust for risk or other factors. A variable discount rate with higher rates applied to cash flows occurring further along the time span might be used to reflect the yield curve premium for long-term debt. Another approach to choosing the discount rate factor is to decide the rate which the capital needed for the project could return if invested in an alternative venture. If, for example, the capital required for Project A can earn five percent elsewhere, use this discount rate in the NPV calculation to allow a direct comparison to be made between Project A and the alternative. Related to this concept is to use the firm's Reinvestment Rate. Reinvestment rate can be defined as the rate of return for the firm's investments on average. When analyzing projects in a capital constrained environment, it may be appropriate to use the reinvestment rate rather than the firm's weighted average cost of capital as the discount factor. It reflects opportunity cost of investment, rather than the possibly lower cost of capital. An NPV calculated using variable discount rates (if they are known for the duration of the investment) better reflects the real situation than one calculated from a constant discount rate for the entire investment duration. Refer to the tutorial article written by Samuel Baker[3] for more detailed relationship between the NPV value and the discount rate. For some professional investors, their investment funds are committed to target a specified rate of return. In such cases, that rate of return should be selected as the discount rate for the NPV calculation. In this way, a direct comparison can be made between the profitability of the project and the desired rate of return. To some extent, the selection of the discount rate is dependent on the use to which it will be put. If the intent is simply to determine whether a project will add value to the company, using the firm's weighted average cost of capital may be appropriate. If trying to decide between alternative investments in order to maximize the value of the firm, the corporate reinvestment rate would probably be a etter choice. Using variable rates over time, or discounting â€Å"guaranteed† cash flows differently from â€Å"at risk† cash flows may be a superior methodology, but is seldom used in practice. Using the discount rate to adjust for risk is often difficult to do in practice (especially internationally), and is difficult to do well. An alternative to using discount factor to adjust for risk is to explicitly correct the cash flows for the risk elements using rNPV or a similar method, then discount at the firm's rate.

Concept of ethical relativism Essay

Ethical relativism is the theory that there are no universalized moral standards to apply to all people all the time. The relativity of ethics refers to the ethics may be different in different societies. The same situation and behavior may be morally acceptable in one society but morally unacceptable in another. However, this theory is rejected by most ethicists. First of all, some claim that while the moral practices of societies may differ, the fundamental moral principles do not. Different nations, even the same nation in different times, often pursue different or even inverse ethics. However, the differences can only explain that moral has diversity but cannot deny that moral is universal and general. There is no doubt that ethics such as fairness, honest and self-esteem are applicable and essential to all societies at any time which is ignored by ethical relativism. Furthermore, ethical relativism promotes social inner conformity and causes no room for moral reform or improvement in a society. In addition, members of the same society may hold different views on practices. When the whole society lack of common agreement on certain issues, it’s really hard to declare which is the right behavior. When cross-cultural communication, ethical relativism may provide support for individualism and cause a situation that different social groups only focus on themselves so that go against the agreement with each other. History development is introduced Ethical relativism encompasses views and arguments that people in various cultures have held over several thousand years. For example, the ancient Jaina Anekantavada principle of Mahavira (c. 599 – 527 BC) states that truth and reality are perceived differently from diverse points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth; and the Greek philosopher Protagoras (c. 481 – 420 BC) famously asserted that â€Å"man is the measure of all things†. The Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484 – 420 BC) observed that each society regards its own belief system and way of doing things as better than all others. Various other ancient philosophers also questioned the idea of an objective standard of morality. In the early modern era Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) notably held that nothing is inherently good or evil. The 18th-century Enlightenment philosopher David Hume (1711–1776) serves in several important respects as the father both of modern emotivism and of moral relativism, though Hume himself did not espouse relativism. He distinguished between matters of fact and matters of value, and suggested that moral judgments consist of the latter, for they do not deal with verifiable facts obtained in the world, but only with our sentiments and passions. But Hume regarded some of our sentiments as universal. He famously denied that morality has any objective standard, and suggested that the universe remains indifferent to our preferences and our troubles. The levels and types of western ethical relativism. Ethical relativism is an important inclination of thinking. It has many levels and types. Its causes are also very complicated. The experience lesson of western, ethical relativism in theoretical thinking may promote our research of ethics; it has both negative significance and positive significance in practice. Western Ethical Relativism is a completed social and ethical situation. From the development of western thinking, the performances of the Ethical relativism are various. The diversity of the western ethical Relativism can be analyzed from two aspects. First: he levels of western Ethical Relativism In general: The ethical relativism can be divided in three levels: t The ethical relativism in standard level believes that: the accuracy of ethical norm is relative. It doesn’t exist any ethic which is always right. The moral standard is right when in the areas people all think it is right. The ethical relativism in standard level is not always relative; the ethical principles may be relatively or absolutely. The ethical relativism in standard level means that the moral principles we obey in our life is not single, but numerous. The ethical relativism in hierarchy system means that the different ethical systems can explain the same social life in same degree. It advocate that the different or opposite ethical systems are morally. The ethical system that is always right and covers all of the society does not exist. The ethical relativism in principle level is always have the closely connection with the ethical relativism in hierarchy. We can hardly make a distinction between them. Second: The types of western ethical relativism. The ethical relativism can be divided in three types: The cultural ethical relativists believe that the different cultural systems need different moral. Different cultural has its own criterion of right or wrong, goodness or badness. We can’t use unique cultural criterion to judge the behavior of people in other culture. The cultural ethical relativism can be divided into three forms describe, standard and cognitive. The experiential ethical relativism advocates the variable and relative of the moral is not our concept, but the fact. It believes that the different people in different groups have different moral experiences, so the uses of moral principle and moral norm should be vary with each individual. Subjective ethical relativism advocate that the moral is only subjective cognizance of people, and it is also the result of expression of the personal attitude or emotion, psychological requirement. Ethical relativism of two kinds of basic theory form So far, people on the ethical relativism theory form are not form a unified opinion. In examining the many ethical relativism forms have basis, we according to the ethical relativism of the basis of the methodology of shall be classified, put it into culture ethical relativism and normative ethics relativism two basic theory form the theory. 1, culture ethical relativism Culture ethical relativism (also called the description relativism) is just a cultural relativism claims in the moral field expands. Its message is moral beliefs because of cultural different and different, the thesis is descriptive, namely to anthropology that special case study for the foundation. 2, the standard ethical relativism regulating the relativism also think that only a moral standard by group or individual when accept is only effective; The effectiveness of the standard limited to certain scope, and moral code itself also limit in a particular area, as most etiquette principles and customs limited to specific areas. The basic characteristics of the ethical relativism Any kind of ethical relativism theory, performance forms in theory has its own characteristic, however, from the overall opinion; all have the following three basic characteristics 1, separate the moral of universality and particularity dialectical unity 2, deny that moral; absolute and relative in dialectical unity 3, ignoring the moral subjectivity and objectivity in dialectical unity. The perverted moral values On the other hand, the moral, as dependent on and decided to part of the cultural organism, which will moral points, thought moral as materials is substantive, no existence people from the common features, human relationship, and people in the moral existence, validity and value shows the subjectivity of the out side. 2? Moral value of the lost Ethical relativism moral existence and value will be to strengthen the relativity of extreme, and creativity are intentionally or unintentionally covered, forgotten and cancelled, this actually means that people is the starting point of the moral value purpose and end-result forgotten and cancel, 3? Moral principles using the dislocation First, the moral are reality wrong. Second, ignore the moral convergence. Third, application strategies are machinery. The Limitations and Enlightenment about Ethical relativism Theory limitations have two main areas: (1) ethical relativism partition the moral of universality and particularity. (2) It denied the unification of the moral subjectivity and objectivity. (3) Ethical relativism misunderstood the relationship between the moral diversity and moral unity. The limitations of the practical level: Ethical relativism can lead to the moral crisis in society practice of moral life. Different people, different regions, different countries, different culture and different social form have different moral each other. When these various different levels of social group interact with each other, they are unavoidable produce conflict. But it is undeniable that ethical relativism provides us with much beneficial enlightenment: Ethical relativism contributes to cultivate moral freedom of the individuals and groups. It can make us take an open, flexible attitude and contributes to people of the different ethnic groups, cultures and social systems are forming the atmosphere of mutual respect, mutual understanding and mutual tolerance. Ethical relativism deny the unity of subjectivity and objectivity of the moral From the point of view of philosophical epistemology, ethical relativism recognizes most of the subjectivity of morality denies the objectivity of morality; deny that morality is subjective and objective unity. Ancient Greece wise to send an outstanding representative of Protagoras that â€Å"man is the measure of all things,† the well-known proposition, it is deeply hidden affirmed the denial of moral objectivity and moral subjectivity. Socrates â€Å"Virtue is knowledge† proposition more knowledge as a moral standard, the nature and source of Socrates, knowledge is not derived from practical experience, but from human reason, rational but the unique subjective cognitive ability, therefore, Socrates’ ethical thinking its deep implication is undoubtedly fragmented subjectivity and objectivity of morality. Skeptics of ancient Greece in the philosophical level, the objective existence of things and its nature in doubt, from the theoretical logic of prefabricated or pre-ethical thinking relativism, subjectivism direction of development. Modern Rationalism philosophy advocates the universality and inevitability of knowledge does not come from external experience, but from the inherent rationality; Accordingly, the scope of the ethics, rational camp philosophers and ethicists advocates ethical guidelines and the moral principle of universality, necessity, and moral truth of the theory can not be obtained from the experience of moral life, but only from the rational, moral, rational or practical reason. As Rationalism prominent representatives of Immanuel Kant, deontological ethics reflect the significant nature of absolutism, but his ethics and provides us with a real practical guide for the contents of his ethics should be said that formalism, empty, empty form that contains the possibility of changing to keep the subjectivism and relativism. In short, Modern Empiricism and Rationalism ethicists whether morality comes down to experience, emotion or reason, these are all subjective things of the spirit of their original purpose of trying to construct a new social objective, universal moral system, the result is returned to the person’s subjective mental world; actually hope to establish the objectivity of the efforts by the subjectivity, not only fail to achieve their goals, but its subjectivity digestion objectivity. Different social form or cultural system have the requirement of different moral inevitably, and ethical is relative to the social or cultural system. Culture ethical relativism mostly connected with the study of anthropology or compared culture. Anthropologists are usually very suspect the possibility of founding common moral principle, because they have seen mostly the great differences of moral life practice of different nationalities, different regions and different social. Culture ethical relativism advocates â€Å"customs control everything†, â€Å"moral vision changed with the geography â€Å". Different cultures have their own standard about right or wrong and good and evil, so they cannot use a culture standard of right or wrong, good and evil to measure the behavior of people in another culture life, and can’t stand in the standpoint out of a culture (other cultural standpoint) to judge a culture. All social formation which belongs to different culture often has very different things which they agree or oppose in the moral. But in an internal social, most of the people in the social have the moral conscience— common of moral, which is the general knowledge about right and wrong in moral. In a broad sense, culture ethical relativism think the entire moral standard is just the reflection of social habits or social customs; it is means that the moral behavior is just the behavior which is recognized by habits in a specific cultural system. Ethic relativism comes from cultural differentiation and also protect the existence of different culture. For example, as to the popular topic of Western hegemonism. Since modern times, western society first come into capitalist market economy. The development of the market economy will be addressing different country and each nation into the process of integration of world economy. Along with the economic integration, the western countries in a dominant and control status in the aspect of world culture, to other country or nation of culture . Even the western country make penetration of the cultural or conduct hegemonism to other culture or nation. According to the theory of ethical relativism judgment, western culture, ethic standardization and concept of value are outcomes of the interaction and integration of family, social history, cultural, economic, political and other factors among western people. Although these western culture, ethic standardization and concept of value affecting other nation to some degree, western culture could not absolutely beyond boundary to replace local culture. Because every culture have right to exist and protect independence from others. Because ethical relativism support that every culture in the world is equal, we can protect our local culture from the aggression of western culture and hegemonism. Conclusion: Through the above analysis, although ethical relativism has certain limitation, but different society has different moral standards and moral beliefs, and every social moral belief are all deeply influence of the culture. Ethical relativism encourages us to explore it. This enables us to maintain a kind of open mind and not blindly rejects other ethical system or foreign culture. We still support the ethical relativism.

BESCO Measurement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

BESCO Measurement - Essay Example The unit used for the y-axis as well as the and x-axes is 1. On the x-axis, each unit is used to represent 10 years. The time period covered in the graph runs from 1950 to 2010. On the y-axis, the rate of development runs from 0 to 700,000. Each unit is used to represent 100,000 units of development. The markings on the line of the graph are used to show series of development. For the first 10 years, which is between before time in record to the mid 1950’s, there was no much change and hence it can be said the development then was constant. Moving on further towards 1960, there was a very slight increase in development. The time period between 1970 and 1980, the rate of development of the fad rose higher by a few units. The rate of development was gradual from the time data used to fill the graph started being collected till the mid 1980’s, the rate of growth recorded according to the graph was a bit gradual, since the line graph remains constant during this time period. However, rapid development started being recorded as from the mid 1980’s and onwards. 1990 marked the beginning of another series and from then, rapid rates of development can be seen from the graph. Between 1990 and 2010, the rate of development in the ten years alone rose from 50,000 to 290,000. This was one of the highest rates of development recorded in the time period. This sharp can be due to a number of factors. However, this is something that we cannot be able to tell from the graph. The year 2000 marked the beginning of the final series on the graph. Between 2000 and 2010, a sharp increase was recorded according to the graph. The steep line shows this high rate of development of the fad. The actual figures of the development increased from 290,000 in 2000 to 610,000 in 2050, which was the end of the time period under

Corporate and business strategy in an international context Coursework

Corporate and business strategy in an international context - Coursework Example Michael Dell emphasized upon maintaining a flexible resource base so that rivals could not match the business model. The strategic focus of Michael Dell’s business model was managing opportunities. Dynamic capabilities enabled the company to meet this objective. Michael Dell converted other resources and capabilities into a distinctive competency by focusing upon adaptation and change. The industry in which Dell operated was characterized by a constant pace of change. Therefore the management needed to focus upon developing a sustainable future by continuously improving firm competency. To this end the dynamic theory was applied. The company maintained a reconfigurable resource base so that a flexible combination of uncertainty and commitment-intensity could be made feasible. In this manner, Dell was able to maintain its market leadership. Firm performance was characterized by the direct model which was different from the business models implemented by the competitors. Althoug h the competitors tried to implement Dell’s business model, they could not develop the same level of firm competency because Dell had already built an organizational capacity for response, reverse and contingency in this area. This allowed the company to maintain competence-generating strategic processes geared towards continuously renewing the competitive advantage. As a result Dell was well-positioned for changing future conditions. The PC industry was structurally attractive since it had the largest share of the industry. However the profit margin was not so great compared to those from microprocessors, software and services. Therefore Dell had to maximize its unit share in order to maximize profitability. This objective was met through tailoring the production system to customer requirements. The investments in online technology and JIT enabled the company to

Peer review for assignments about (Peripheral Nerve Stimulation by MR Assignment

Peer review for assignments about (Peripheral Nerve Stimulation by MR gradient coils) - Assignment Example Overview of the article Bottger’s paper, ‘Peripheral nerve stimulation by MR gradient coils,’ is organized into subsections with a well-outlined abstract and a conclusion. The abstract outlines the paper’s objective of discussing and understanding Peripheral nerve stimulation that results from application of MR gradient coils in imaging. The abstract also outlines the paper’s key contents such as occurrence of peripheral nerve stimulation, methods for reducing the occurrence, appropriate PNS thresholds that the body can sustain involved risks in the technology, and effects of the technology’s use. The author describes magnetic resonance as a powerful and significant tool for imaging and that can obtain high-level resolution without using ionizing radiation. The tool also helps in investigating organ function, to investigate vivo chemistry and to visualize the brain. The author also establishes the need for care in application of the technology because while high resolution images requires high strength pulse and powerful static magnetic fields, these increase chances of peripheral nerve stimulation and also risks care personnel within the imaging facility. The paper also seeks to define peripheral nerve stimulation, identify its causes and where it occurs, and discusses threshold values for imaging and strategies for reducing effects of peripheral nerve stimulation. Commendations The abstract offers a comprehensive overview of the paper and succeeds in communicating the article’s objective. It develops suspense by exploration of content headline but not actual information, a feature that can motivate a reader into the article. The author also uses simple and precise headings that are outlined conspicuously. Another outstanding element of the article is its attained credibility through reliance and acknowledgement of its sources of information. Reliability of offered information is another feature of the article be cause of consistency of offered information to other sources. Its argument that peripheral nerve stimulation causes pain, for example, is consistent with the observation that the technology may have irritable effects such as twitching of muscles on patients (Rummeny and Reimer 2009, p. 33). Schultz also supports the author’s position on causes of the stimulation, varying magnetic fields (2013, p. 4). Application of diagrams and tables also enhances the article’s ability to communicate to the audience. Affirmations A number of concerns, despite the positive attributes, however arise from the article’s content with respect to its aims and headings. Some of the article’s content is not consistent with its headings. The author does not seem to define PNS while the heading, ‘what is PNS?’ suggest the need for the definition. The audience anticipates an explicit or inferred definition but none appears. Like in the abstract, a definition of PNS is n ecessary to make the title relevant. The same concern arises with respect to the heading, ‘what are the causes of PNS’ because no explicit causes, except involved mechanism towards the stimulation, are offered. One of the possible responses would â€Å"changes at the neuromuscular junction or muscle level† (Tranquilli, Thurmon and Grimm 2013, p. 429). Significant inconsistency also exists between the abstract and headings, which communicates the author’

Legal Forms of Business Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Legal Forms of Business Paper - Essay Example Sole Proprietorship A sole proprietorship is a kind of business structure wherein a business is to be carried by an individual or a married individual alone. If Miguel chooses this type of business structure he will find it is easy to operate, enjoy the profits and have the benefit of the flexibility of management. A sole proprietorship has fewer legal controls but at the same time has an unlimited personal liability (Reed, n. d.). Example: Miguel launches food services. The name of the company is Miguel’s Food Services. The name comes from the name of its sole owner, Miguel Garcia. Miguel invested $50,000 from his own funds and borrowed $100,000 from the bank for the business. Let us assume that the business failed after several months of operation, and he still owes the bank the amount of $50,000. As a sole owner, he is liable to pay the bank the whole amount from his personal assets. Miguel will find it difficult to attract investors under this set up. Because he is new in this kind of business, there is also the possibility of the flaw of management, as he does not possess the necessary skills needed in the business. Partnership A partnership is a kind of arrangement wherein two or more persons (not a married couple) agree to contribute money, labor, and skill to a business (Reed, n. d). Example: Let us suppose that Miguel accepts Peter as a general partner, each of them shares in the management of the business, shares in the profit and losses of the company and both of them are equally liable for the debt of the company. Each party must agree to the participation of its partner, and the partners can do it orally, in a written form or implied, and no formalities are required. It should be a good practice to have a written agreement to avoid future disputes (Cheeseman2010). Thus, Miguel, and Peter as business partners should write articles of partnership that spell out their terms of agreement in management, profit, or loss. Their Food Service does no t pay federal income taxes. Instead each partner should pay his or her income tax separately. This way, the government can trace if they declare their income and losses properly. General partners have the right to share in the management and also to share in the profits. Under the rule, no partner is allowed to receive a compensation for his performance in the business unless otherwise agreed upon. However, a partner is allowed reimbursement for business travel expenses and expenses incurred for the business. Limited Partnership Another possibility for Miguel is to consider the limited partnership wherein he can be a general partner and accept partners on a limited basis. As a general partner he manages the business and shares fully in its profits and losses. The limited partners share the profits of the organization but their losses are limited only to their shares in the company (Reed, n. d.) Let us take this example. The company is registered as Best Food Services, Ltd. The word Ltd. signifies that partners have limited participation in the company. Miguel, Peter, and James are partners. Miguel is the general partner; Peter and James are limited partners.

Hedonic Method in the Consumer Price Index Case Study

Hedonic Method in the Consumer Price Index - Case Study Example The thus, Hedonic Pricing model will mostly be used in estimating the extent each of the factors affects the price. Â  The hedonic method is used in tracking changes in the CPI so that quality adjustments to the CPI can be made. The purpose of the Consumer Price Index is measuring effects on consumer household by price changes. The preferred method that is used to make quality adjustments is the Hedonic method. This is because it relies on statistical techniques when it estimates implicit prices of characteristics of a product derived from quantities and prices in the marketplace. This implicit price is used to measure the value of qualitative differences observed in products by consumers (Bade, & Michael, 2002). This helps disaggregate observed price difference between two products into pure price change and changes in quality. Hedonic methods have gone on to be proposed to be used in other categories of goods and services in the Consumer Price Index. Â  The statistical techniques involved in the hedonic methods make it suitable for use in tracking even the minimal changes in the CPI. Changes like those in quality are at times overlooked but by use if this method they are tracked and adjusted.

Describe the relationship between media and reality Essay

Describe the relationship between media and reality - Essay Example The media can be considered a very influential representation to reality through the essential elements of selection, construction and representation. Each media form, whether electronic or print, process social constructs of an image of event, story, and this may differ to what the society experience in reality (dl.nfsa.gov, Representation). With the two competing theories on media, manipulation theory is more accurate. According to Noam Chamsky, there are 10 strategies of manipulation by the media, taking note on reality TV. The first is the strategy of distraction. According to Chomsky, â€Å"the key element of social control is the strategy of distraction that is to divert public attention from important issues and changes decided by political and economic elites, through the technique of flood or flooding continuous distractions and insignificant information. The strategy of distraction is also essential to keep the public interested in the essential knowledge in science, econo mics, psychology, neurobiology, and cybernetics.† The second strategy is to create problems after offering solution. Chomsky referred to this strategy as "problem-reaction-solution" which creates a problem, a "situation" due to cause some reaction in public, so that it is the principal measures that want to accept. Third strategy is gradation aims to make it accept an unacceptable extent, simply apply it gradually, a dropper, for consecutive years (Chomsky, n.d.). Fourth strategy is defer which Chomsky believes that another way to create an unpopular decision to accept is to present it as "painful and necessary" in obtaining public acceptance for the moment for a future application. It is easier to accept that a future sacrifice of an immediate sacrifice. Fifth strategy according to Chomsky is addressing public as children. This refers to the public as a younger child where characters, arguments and any discourse are performed in children’s intonation. The next strategy is to use the emotional aspect much more than a reflection. Chomsky put it in a way that â€Å"making use of emotional aspect is a classic technique to cause a short circuit on rational analysis, and finally to the critical sense of individuals.† Seventh strategy is to keep the public in ignorance and mediocrity. Next strategy is to stimulate the public to be complacent mediocrity (Chomsky, n.d.). Ninth strategy of manipulation of media is strengthening the revolt and lastly is the strategy of the best guys knows what they know if the same. This last strategy portrays that the system has more control and great power over individuals than the individuals themselves (Chomsky, n.d.). I love Lucy and Rosie movies were sit-coms which movies were made after the success of the shows. I love Lucy was able to portray a happy couple who lived in a modest apartment in New York. In this movie, the couple were in pursuit of success and wealth. This sitcom and movie was ranked very high i n the country. Thus through the theory of manipulation, the audience can be manipulated to believe in the lifestyle portrayed by the couple in the sitcom and the movie. The husband Ricky, is a Cuban born bandleader in Tropicana, loves his wife very much. Despite the shortcomings of Lucy in her career in showbiz and different get-rich-quick schemes, Ricky was forgiving and stayed beside her all throughout. Rosie on the other hand,

Reflective paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 5

Reflective paper - Essay Example Thus, as a group, the reward power made us to create a strong relationship that resulted to improved performance. When analyzing at an organizational level, the reward power improved the profitability of the organization due to the improvement in the performance of the employees. As the result of the improved sales for Peytons, the firm attained a competitive edge. Thus, when analyzing at a global level, the firm was able to compete with other firms in the international market. During my duties, the managing director was very supportive especially when I was new in the company. This improved my attitude towards my work. At the individual level, improved attitude made me to have a positive view towards my duties that I once depicted as challenging. My attitude towards my workmates who were new to me also improved, thus I was able to ask for assistance. This implies that at the group level we viewed each other with positive attitude. Organizationally, the assistance that the MD provide d to me made me to significantly contribute to the success of the company. When looked at the global level, I became a person with strong willingness and positive attitude anywhere in work in the various parts of the world. The team I was involved was focused at meeting the deadlines by initiating a good communication system where each one of was closely connected to another. One of the notable positive behaviors of my team was that there was a clear division of duties and each one of us was able to complete the duties on time. This was a good experience that we will adopt in our future endeavors as managers and leaders. Completion of the duties also made the team to effectively work towards the achievement of the team goals. The negative team-related behavior was that there were two members who were aggressors. Every new idea that the team leader

Drinking and Driving in the United States Essay

Drinking and Driving in the United States - Essay Example Overview Drunk driving is an avoidable problem especially with self responsibility. Increasing number of arrests might have little to do against this offence. Alcohol tends to damage the Central Nervous System of an individual. When the BAC level is at .10 percent the ability to take proper decisions gets damaged and the drivers lose control on the steering. He lacks the alertness necessary to understand if a danger lay ahead in the street and the response time is delayed. The vision is also disturbed due to a high BAC level. In some cases there might be difficulty in understanding the traffic signal colors and the capacity to differentiate them (Goodenough, Wallance and McGuire, 12-15). Drunk drivers might also face the problem of driving safely during the night or redeem from the glare of light in minimum possible time. Under such situation and in the absence of self awareness is an individual the enforcement of the law comes to play a role. However apart from the level of enforcem ent, it is important for the public to know the laws. Background Any decision of a driver which is impaired by alcohol intake can result in danger for others or the driver taking abnormal risks. It might lead to the driver taking improper turns and misjudgments regarding the speed and the right roads. Jerky movements and sharp turns might result owing to drunk driving. This might alarm the other travelers or the normal drivers. In US a Blood Alcohol Content (BAC) of .08 or more is considered to be above the legal ceiling in all the states (NHTSA). As per the NHTSA findings, in 2003 less than 9 percent of the drivers with a BAC of 0.08 percent or more and involved in crashes involving deaths were repeat offenders of drunk driving who were under one or more accusations of DWI (driving while intoxicated) – â€Å"Drivers with a BAC of 0.08% or higher involved in fatal crashes were eight times more likely to have a prior conviction for DWI than were drivers with no alcohol in the ir system.† (CDC; Wren) Position statement: Drunk driving being a criminal offence in US, is one of the major causes of deaths due to motor accidents in the country. Appeals and Evidence In the United States of America drunken driving is included under the specific criminal offence of DUI or Driving Under Influence. The most striking as well as pitiful information that makes it justified to regard drunk driving as a criminal offence is that in 2008 deaths due to dunk driving contributed to 32 percent of total car accidental deaths in 2008. According to National Highway Traffic Safety Administration in 2007 amongst the motor vehicles related fatal accidents around 32 percent were the outcome of alcohol impaired driving especially with drivers having BAC of .08 or more. During the span 1995 to 2006 incidences of injuries related to motor vehicle collisions admitted was 8272 out of which motor cycle and mopped crashes contributed to 12 percent and amongst them 24.5 of the motorcy clists and 39 percent of moped operators were impaired by alcohol (Christmas, Brintzenhoff, and Schmelzer, 305). When notes in absolute terms, the total deaths come to 37261 and 11773 were due to drunk driving. During the night the drivers were more likely to drink and hence death

My Last Duchess Essay Example for Free

My Last Duchess Essay In the Poem My Last Duchess by Robert Browning the heartless and haughty speaker explains a painting of his last wife while inadvertently revealing a darker side to his last marriage than one might view from they outside. The poem depicts a dense stream of conscious feel to it by using language and sentence structure common to conversation earlier to the time period it was written. The use of twas not , and the English spelling of favour suggests the poem occurred in a time period in which husbands held power over their wives with such things as nine-hundred-years-old names and money. Brownings great usage of dated speaking style creates a historical medium from which the event which slowly unfold. The poem is masked in a conversation with one person speaking in a dramatic monologue about his beloved portrait of the last duchess he married. The rhetorical questions Whod this sort of trifling and end rhymes in the couplets throughout the poem wall call and had glad drive the poem from one line to the next . These techniques create motion in the poem much like the anger and arrogance that the Duke exerted towards his deceased wife to control her. The diction of this poem mirrors the force with which the Duke ruled his house as well as the social male norms at the time. The poem My Last Duchess is told from first point of view by a selfish man admiring his late wifes smiling portrait. As the Duke entertains his guest, you, he tells of My favour after contemplating how shall I say? that his wife flirted with all she encountered. The biased first person account of the death of the duchess leads the reader into the center of the mans thoughts and allows for a more in depth understanding of his desire for control toward his wife even in death. His dramatic monologue gives perhaps more information concerning the specifics of his involvement in wifes death than he realizes. The quotations incorporated within the poem such as Just this or that in you disgusts me and Her mantle laps over my Ladys wrist too much as well as the direct address Sir, twas all one to the guest shows the Dukes self-important attitude and his high regards for the thoughts which he believes others are thinking. The Duke boasts that he now holds the power to let others see the smile of the portrait that was meant only for him. He gets so enthralled with his own story of his wife he reveals that his commands ended the duchesss smiles and possibly her life. The first person point of view for this poem explains further the thirst for power and self-love which the Duke honors himself with by controlling the women and people in his life of which he feels superior. Browning illustrates the complexity of the controlling Duke by showing his carelessness and arrogance by the words he uses to impress his guest. The Duchess painted on the wall has a countenance that only can be seen by the command of the Duke. When the Duke believes the Duchess finds interest in other people beside her husband, The Duke, gave a command which stopped all her smiles to everyone. When the Duke could not obtain complete power over and tame his young wife, she died in a manner which is not fully explained. The Duke with the nine-hundred-year old name is meeting with a man that is offering the Duke his daughter another young maiden for marriage. This offer of marriage is gladly accepted by the Duke no doubt is eager to attempt to tame yet another sea-horse of a wife. For the Duke this marriage is a trial of the subservience of women to their wealthy and powerful husbands. The details given in this poem bring forth the conclusion that the Duke got rid of his last Duchess and is now ready for a new one. The title of the poem My Last Duchess suggests that the Duke had had more than one Duchess. Had the poem illustrated the Dukes first wife it could have been titled My First Duchess. The startling command line toward the end of the poem lets the reader realize that this man has the power to make a woman be remembered by nothing more than a portrait controlled by the master of the house. This poem has themes commonly found in the local color movement and associated with feminism. Browning gives the audience a picture of the dark and distorted beginning of a new couple and marriage.

Horse And Rider Archetypes In Canterbury Tales English Literature Essay

Horse And Rider Archetypes In Canterbury Tales English Literature Essay Several works have brought about various The Canterbury Tales aspects. However, only a few of these works have recognized and given credit to the horses which are one of the characters mentioned by Chaucer. The aim of this essay is to try to bring out the significance of these characters which often go unnoticed thereby remaining neglected. The realization of these characters assists in filling an important fissure in the comprehending as well as appreciating the great work of Chaucer. The main purpose of this essay is to illustrate that Chaucer made the choice of mentioning pilgrims horses not only for the sake of aesthetic detail but for figurative alongside actual narrative purposes as well. The horses bring out more information concerning the pilgrims dressing manners in addition to physical features. As the horses act as an indication of the pilgrims social condition, they in addition give a hint on the moral character of a certain character. Even though the appearance of horses in the whole of The Canterbury Tales is minimal; they make a provision for one to draw an insight on the Chaucers vivid menagerie. In the Canterbury Tales; Chaucer has made reference to the horse for a number of times. In an approximation he has actually mentioned them for more than hundred and fifty times. Particularly, these solid references are mostly either proverbial terminologies or images which give reflections on the horses common notions thus giving an illustration of the relationship between characters in respect to their animal qualities, passions alongside stately status. It comes as no surprise to have Chaucers travelers mounted as pilgrims usually used the horses during pilgrimages. Nevertheless, Chaucer oddly makes a specification of eight pilgrim mounts, that is; Baths wife took her ride on an ambler, the Plowman rode a mare, and the palfrey was for the Monk while the reeve rode a stot. Though Chaucer maintains that the horses are simply normal animals helpful to man, he could not have given such a detailed description if that was the only reason he used them. Most likely, Chaucer used the horse archetypes so as to make an illustration; though subtly, of the pilgrims rank within the society alongside the individuals real moral character. For example, Chaucer allocates the mare to the Plowman which is a low class mount meant only for the most poor people in society. However, as the Plowman meekly acknowledges his personal social status, he rides the mare happily and thereby embodies a morality level of high standards because he never pretends to be what he is actually not. As a careful craftsman, Chaucer seems to possess a particular use for each detail, together with the pilgrims horses description. People such as Beryl Rowland have alleged that the mount mostly gave reflection of a riders disposition. Actually, the horse type allocated to every pilgrim tends to give a hint on various character traits. Seventeen pilgrims have in a certain time been defined relative to their individual horses; some of them in just one or two lines while others such as the Monk alongside the Canon in substantial detail. On top of the overall prologue, Chaucer has also mentioned horses within a number of the individual tales themselves, with the Reeves Tale having the greatest number of horses mention. For instance, Bayard, a slack horse, has been used within Reeves Tale to give a depiction of the clerks as well as the millers status, nature, freedom and their sexual desires. Amongst the core Canterbury Tales attractions is Chaucers capability to bring out his characters uniquely as well as universally (Chaucer 109). Even though each pilgrim turns out as a unique stranger, he or she possesses a great deal of appeal to the audience as within every pilgrim lay specific fundamental human aspects. These human aspects seem to reveal Chaucers lively characters cast together, although what remains more appealing is their peculiarity and oddness: By the means of individual characterization, Chaucer develops a human, all mans image. Certain mount types have been used to illustrate the pilgrims nature whereas characters equestrian habits bring out, mostly more effectively, the inner nature of the pilgrims. Chaucer definitely introduces characters oblique moral judgement on the basis of their individual riding habits. For instance, Chaucer portrays the Squire as a young, passionate man who is Cuteisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦., lowly, and Servyable ( Chaucer 99). Which fits the Wel koudeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.sitte on hors and faire ryde line (94). By stating that it would have been not understandable to have the handsome, worthy honorable Knights son ride clumsily on his steed, Chaucer brings out Squires equestrian abilities. In accordance to the social conventions of a young man of his class Chaucers Squire assimilates the archetype as all squires were considered as proficient in horsemanship. Chaucer applies furthe r rider archetypes to the Clerk as well as Merchant. The Merchant is shown as one who talks his resonsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.ful solemnly (Chaucer 274) as well as utilizes wel his bisette (279) rightfully rides hye on [his] horse (Chaucer 271). Similarly the reserved clerk, rides coy and stille as doth a maydeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦new espoused (1-2) fittingly puts across how pilgrims moral alongside personal nature is reflected by their riding ability. Chaucer initially conducts an examination of the Knight together with his son; Squire who are his most noble plus aristocratic characters before describing the pilgrims in detail which assists in the better understanding of the horses effect in the medieval society status. Chaucers Knight appropriately takes after the Knights archetype as just like most of the other knights, fights for aristocracy membership. Ful worthy was he in his lordes were (Chaucer 47). In overall, certain pilgrims mounts contribute to the tales realism in addition to subtle and thereby Chaucer actually had a purpose by using them. Work Cited Chaucer Geoffrey. (1775). Canterbury Tales. London, U.K: Mews-gate press

Theory Of Conversational Implicature To Recognize Meaning English Language Essay

Theory Of Conversational Implicature To Recognize Meaning English Language Essay Introduction To understand an utterance is to go beyond the literal meaning interpretation. It is also to go beyond proposition analysis. This implies the existence of unity of what is said and what is implicated. The theory of conversational implicature by Grice is a theory that provides an account of the possibility to give a meaning that extend beyond the literal expressions that are uttered by the conventional sense. Through this theory, it will be available to catch the attention of the speaker and catch the figure of speech within the literary work. It will be also possible to improve the communicative skill. Grice has distinguished between the sentence meaning and the speakers meaning. He looked into the differences between the literal meaning that is contextually dependent and the conversational implicature that is contextually determined. For instance, the statement of this expression He is a fine friend, may convey that fact that the speaker is communicating ironically as the speaker intends that He is not a good friend. To find out such details, it is something dependent on the particular context in which this statement is uttered. Therefore, in order to understand a message is to understand the meanings of the words that are uttered in the message and the grammatical relations between such meanings. This notion usually needs a particular degree of implicitness in the communication. This is what Grice has offered through the introduction of his principle that is called the Co-operative Principle (CP). Through this principle, it is to be aware of the entire communicative intentions as well as the conversational implicature. This is the mechanism to recognize meaning. The conversational implicature theory and its implications will be explored in the following line with reference to its capability in distinguishing meaning. Grices Theory of Conversational Implicature Grice (1975;42) has made a distinction between the meaning of the words, what the speaker literally reports when coming up with them, and what the speaker intends to mean by conveying such words. This is the notion that usually goes beyond what is said. For instance, when someone is asked to lunch and he replies that he has a one oclock class that he is not prepared for; by this, he has conveyed that he will not be coming to lunch, although hasnt literally said so. He wants the second party to understand that by giving a reason for not accepting to have lunch (the need to prepare the class) he intends to inform that he is not coming to lunch due to that reason. The study of such conversational implicatures is the main focus of Grices theory. To start with, the Grices theory of conversation provides a clear distinction between what someone says and what he implicates by conveying this utterance. The utterance that someone conveys is elaborated by the sentence conventional meaning as well as the processes of disambiguation of context and fixing the reference. The implication is connected with the presence of some rational principles and maxims regulating the conversation and this is what known as the conventional implicatures that will be explored in the later lines. The literal content of the utterance has been broadly identified as the direct interpretation of the utterance without reference to any other contextual implications. The implicature or what the speakers intends to convey or what is implied in the speakers utterance stands on different bases from what the speaker intentionally communicates. The Co-Operative Principle (CP) Grice suggests that speakers and hearers share a co-operative principle within the conversation. He proposed four maxims or four guidelines that control the efficient co-operative use of language. His co-operative principle states that it is to make a contribution as per the required levels in terms of the stage at which it occurs, the purpose of the talk, and the direction of talk exchange in which the speaker or hearer is engaged (Grice, 1975; 43). The four maxims As Grice conveyed, there are four maxims that guide the implementation of the co-operative principle in the plans of speakers and comprehension of listeners. These four maxims are as follows: Quantity This maxim implies that the speaker should avoid the inclusion of unnecessary information in what he contributes. Should the speaker go back and forth without providing anything new or informative; this is to make the listener lose interest in the discourse. The contribution is to be as informative as is required (for the present goals of the exchange). The contribution is not to be more informative than required. Quality This maxim implies that the speakers should provide all the information that the hearer is in need to understand. Should the speaker come over a significant piece of information, it will be difficult for the addressee to get what the speaker is attempting to convey. Relation The principle of relevance is so important in Linguistics. By, relevance, Grice means that, within the conversation, the speaker should involve the information that is relevant to the conversation subject. The principle of relevance is a matter of degree as there is a divergence between people as what is relevant and what is not relevant. It is not something absolute. As per the circumstances of separate situations, the particular application of the principle varies to great extents. Manner Politeness is a more moral principle than its grammatical significance in Linguistics. This maxim involves some sub-points; Avoiding obscure expressions. Avoiding ambiguous elements. Avoiding prolixity. To have the characteristic of delivering ordered utterances. To convey what is said in the manner that is most appropriate for any response that would be viewed as appropriate (Grice, 1975; 44). The request for politeness implies that the speaker should treat the hearer in the manner that he would like to be treated According to Grice, the principles that control the conversation are derived from the controls that regulate the cooperative actions of humans. Extensive discussions have been introduced regarding the co-operative principle and the maxims. The questions that can be raised here are that whether there is a need for more or not. It is to be argued that whether these principles are normative or descriptive. Also, it is to be argued whether these principles are assumed to be observed by the speakers or hearers in rational communications or that they are tools for rational construction. A later argument that can be raised is that whether the co-operative principle needs from the part of speakers or hearers cooperation towards a more common goal and not to be restricted to understanding of what is said. It is clear that Grice gives to these principles a vital role in both of the definition and the interpretation of conversational implicatures. According to Grice, coherence and purposefulness are two major characteristics of verbal exchanges. Verbal exchanges are not a continuum of disconnected remarks (Grice, 1975; 45). The participants who are engaged in the talk-exchange cooperate in terms of the goal and purpose of the exchange and their mutual grasp of the maxims or rules of conversation that bring out what is appropriate or inappropriate to the talk-exchange. Speakers may intentionally break the rules or maxims. For example, speakers may say things, in a talk-exchange, which they dont believe (violating the maxim of quality) or may render a weak judgment of what the hearer knows (violating the maxim of quantity). The crucial factor in distinguishing between conversational implicatures and conventional implicatures, according to Grice, is that conversational implicatures are calculable. Conventional implicatures are given by the meaning of particular particles such as but or therefore. The difference between (1) and (2) can be seen: He is an American, therefore he is open-minded. He is an American, and he is open-minded. His being open-minded comes from his being American. In (1) and (2), the speaker conveys the same meaning in accordance with Grice. But, there is a difference that with (1), the speaker implicates (3). This is what is called conventional implicature. This has to do with the conventional meaning and has nothing to do with the maxims of cooperation that extend beyond what is being said. Conventional implicature is the greatest part that has undergone argumentation in the theory of conversation. This can be attributed for many reasons. One reason is that its application to particular examples goes against common intuitions. Also, the notion of conventional implicatures sheds light on the distinction between what is informed, directed by the semantic conventions of the language, and what is implicated, usually conceived as a subject of inference to the speakers intentions through his sayings. The conventional meaning of a sentence has largely to do with what is said and this is essentially different from implicatures. Eventually, it positions the study of conventional meaning for certain utterances inside the boundaries of pragmatics that is interested in the study of implicatures, rather than semantics that is realized as the dwelling of conventional meaning. In addition to the notion of conversational implicatures, Grice distinguished between what are called particularized and generalized implicatures. The particularized are implicatures that are produced by saying something with reference to some specific features of the context. The generalized implicature takes place where the use of specific forms of words in an utterance will carry a sort of implicature (Bach, 1994; 162). The example that was provided by Grice; Y is meeting a woman this morning. In the absence of special conditions, it will be implicated that this woman is a woman other than Ys wife, mother, sister, or friend. In appropriate circumstances, this implicatures can be ignored due to the availability of some contextual information. On the other hand, particularized conversational implicatures export more than one application. Such applications include tautologies, metaphor, irony, and any non-conventional uses that can be accounted for through them. The theory of implicature is counted to be significant. It is a very important theory in pragmatics. Sentence meaning and speakers meaning Grice believes that speakers meaning is a fundamental concept in communication, and that the meaning of the sentence can be explained by means of it. This notion contrasts with what can be called the truth-conditional theory whose proponents believe that the meaning of a sentence can be given through truth conditions and this should have the priority in explaining the meaning conveyed by the speaker. Grice (1975) was much concerned with the types of meaning that can be existed in language. Two types of meaning have been identified; the natural meaning and the nonnatural meaning. This example is adopted from Grice (1975; 337) The three rings of the bell mean that the bus is occupied The three rings of the bell mean that the bus is occupied, and indeed, the bus is occupied. The three rings of the bell mean that the bus is occupied, but indeed, the conductor was wrong and the bus is not occupied. In the above three examples, there is a nonnatural relationship between the three arguments of rings, bell, and bus. The relationship between the signal and intended meaning is what conveys the meaning. No natural reason can be found for such assumption. Why in particular the three rings, not one or two, denote that the bus is full. This notion is termed by Grice as (meaning NN). Grice contends that the non-natural meaning occupies a great part in the language. Communicative intentions According to Grice, word-meaning and sentence-meaning are basically rested upon what is called speakers intentions. This notion is called by Grice as the communicative intentions. Grice has worked much upon the idea of the ontology of semantic notions. In his perception, the characteristics of communicative intentions and the mental forces beyond the communicative actions, and what the listener has to understand in order for the communicative act to success are the pillars of the semantic ontology. As realized, the communicative intentions have the following characteristics; Communicative intentions are directed towards some other agent; i.e. to the addressee. Communicative intentions are overt. They are targeted to be identified by the addressee. Satisfaction of communicative intentions lies mainly in being identified by the addressee. The important conclusion that can be derived from the above facts is that the communicative intentions have much to do with being recognized by the addressee. Meaning recognition Much of Grices work (1975) consisted mainly in shedding light on the difference between what is conveyed literally in a given sentence and what is solely suggested in an utterance of the same sequence of words. To distinguish between the two, Grice (1975; 55) used the terms implicate and implicature with referring to content of the utterance that is linguistically coded as WHAT IS SAID. What is said within a sentence and what is implicated in an utterance in the same string of words in that sentence is what is known as the TOTAL SIGNIFICANCE OF AN UTTERANCE (Grice, 1989; 41). Implicature refers to a collection of ways that is used to convey the literally unsaid information. To graphically represent the relationships between these notions, the following diagram can be represented: Total significance of an utterance What is said what is implicated Conventional nonconventional Conversational nonconversational Generalized particularized The concern will be with the conventional implicature and the two kinds of conversational implicature. When it comes to conventional implicature, the conventional meaning of the given words will specify the implication or what is implicated in addition to helping in identifying what is said (Grice, 1975; 55). An example form Grice (1975;56) of conventional implicature can be considered. The following example is meant conventionally to have an implication rather than to literally say that the mans being open-minded comes from his being an American: He is and American; he is, therefore, open-minded The existence of the lexical item therefore has to give prominence to the conventional implicature in the above example. Conventional implicature are generated by certain hints of discourse rather than the literal meaning or the conventional meaning of a give word (Grice, 1989; 30). These features can be explored in the following points: The cooperative principle governs the linguistic exchanges. The content of the cooperative principle is elaborated in terms of the four maxims of conversation and their submaxims. In a given exchange, should one participant deviates from the cooperative principle, his parteners will assume that the principle is adopted at some deeper level. A fifth point that for Grice is the understanding of the intercultural process as it raises the awareness of the participants regarding what they have in common in terms of the four factors. According to Sperber and Wilson (1989; 45), there is no a true warranty in the assumption of mutual knowledge. Sperber and Wilson convey that the notion of mutual knowledge has no close counterpart in the real world. Instead, they suggest that, the communication process is the essential beyond the joint information. They also suggest that the communication is achieved if there is shared information between the participants. Meaning as Use The major contribution of Grice concentrated on making distinction between the semantic and pragmatic implications. Meaning as use points to the speakers meaning and what the speaker intends as well as the communicative influence of the utterance. This perspective of meaning is sound since the function of language is to serve a purpose. It other words, language is purposeful, i.e. when speaking an utterance; it is intended to achieve specific ends. Therefore, language as use includes making choices about the suitable linguistic forms that are appropriate to the communicative situation and the cultural context. The view of meaning is based the tenet that that language is an instrument of social interaction and communication. As per this tenet, there is an emphasis on the principles that determine the way in which language operates in the daily life. Hereby, meaning is regarded as a pragmatic phenomenon that has multiple uses governed by tacit principles. The application of these principles relies on the communicative setting, social bonds, and the cultural context. Meaning as use is not directly concerned with the word or sentence in itself. It, rather, depends on the utterance that is defined in respect of a speech act. The speech act has three criteria to define it; it is defined as a locutionary act, an illocutionary force, and it is finally defined as perlocutionary event. Such criteria can be accounted for in respect of the utterance. For example; Semantics has many benefits In a particular context, this is a locutionary act. There is an articulation of phonemes, words, and syllables so that a certain linguistic meaning can be encoded. In terms of the linguistic communication rules, there is a message and purpose for the utterance. If this utterance is said by the professor to the student, it is then an act of persuasion. Also, this utterance is a perlocutionary event as it entails the supposition of some reaction or consequence. The consequence may take place as more positive attitude to linguistics. It is normally perceived that giving an advice has the expectation that this advice will be responded positively and not rudely. To cut this long story short, it can be said that the utterance generates a link between the speaker, the hearer, and the message. Not only does the speaker encodes the meaning and the message from the linguistic perspective, but also it has an impact on the action through the use of language. So, the definition of the speech act comprises to utterance characteristics; encoding the meaning by the speaker in the manner of a mental representation and the decoding of the communicative function by the listener. Hereby, natural language is described as both a social and psychological phenomenon. On the psychological basis, it is communicative language that makes people able to communicate in an effective manner by the means of verbal means (Chomsky, 1975). The communicative competence comprises both of the grammatical skills and the sociolinguistic skills. The sociolinguistic skills involve the rules of social bonds and interaction in the light of the cultural conventions and values. On the other hand, the communicative competence involves a mix of the pragmatic and grammatical competence. Functional Grammar Functional grammar (FG) implies that notion that elements of language are studied with reference to their function in the language. Functional grammar thus investigates language function from the perspective of communicative context. It concentrates on the grammatical data generating from the social communication. According to the functional grammar, language is an elaborate system of meanings that are realized as semantic constituents together with the other grammatical categories. This is considered a synesic approach to grammar study rather than a syntactic one. Linguistic forms are not an end in themselves, but they are a means to an end. Thus, it vane be realized that functional grammar model is referred to a semantic system mixed with the linguistic forms through which meanings are realized. For functional grammar, every language is centered on two fundamental meaning components; the ideational and interpersonal metafunctions. By means of the ideational metafunction, it is to acquire knowledge and learning about the surrounding world and to communicate ones experiences. By means of the interpersonal metafunction, language is used to establish and keep relationships with others. Both of the interpersonal and ideational metafunctions are representation of the universal use of language. It is to control and understand the surrounding environment. Together with these two components, it the third element which is called meaning or the textual metafunction. Through the textual metafunction, the language user has the tools for arranging information in coherent passages. Intercultural interaction Sperber and Wilson (1995) report that individuals who speak the same language and who belong to the same linguistic community do not have the same assumptions. It can be argued that the principle of common knowledge cannot be completely supported and idea of shared knowledge is too ambiguous. Ostension is a fundamental point in the theory of Sperber and Wilson. Ostension means when a speaker makes something that draws the attention of the other participants within the discourse. Also, there is what is known as the theory of relevance that is an act of Ostension bears a guarantee of relevance and this principle of relevance makes the intention beyond the Ostension more manifest. This guarantee is not intended to mean that the assumption implies the notion of mutual manifestation or that the communicative intent will not be a failure. The main function of the guarantee is that something relevant is at hand. The point of manifests occupies a significant position within the theory of Sperber and Wilson. Manifest is what is recognizable or inferable but not necessarily recognized or perceived. To apply manifests, it is to extend from facts to all assumptions. Assumptions can be defined as what individuals think of as a representation of the real world. This stands on a contradictory basis with the fictions and desires. It is possible to make assumptions, but assumptions cannot be made without activation within the conversation process. It can be assumed that Osama Bin Laden has never played tennis with the American President Bush, but this assumption cannot be made real without being activated. According to Sperber and Wilson, it is available to suggest that mutual manifests are available and are not implausible like the notions of mutual knowledge and mutual assumptions. Mutual cognitive environment is very close to the notion of mutual manifests that can be defined as any joint cognitive environment that is manifest that it is shared by people. That two people have the same cognitive environment does not mean that they have similar assumptions, but they are placed to do so. One of the needed outcomes of the intercultural communication is to increase the range of mutual knowledge of others assumptions. What the conversation involves in terms of the activation and mutual bases depends on the appreciations of the parties participating in the conversation and their skill as well as their continuous negotiation. The relationship between conversational structure and thought In general, it is obvious that what the conversationalist spreads, intents, or says in the articulation is out-of- the-way beyond the meanings of the sentence in the context of the articulation. This relates to semantic meaning of the context of pronunciation. However, it is debatable which cases suit this description. The quantifier domain restriction is one of these debatable cases. Suppose, a person is standing in his house after a party, he says to his wife in a gloomy way, Every bottle is empty. What is not debatable is that his conveyance through this articulation is not meant that every bottle in the universe is empty, but that every bottle in his house is empty. The debatable question is how this phenomenon should be elaborated. It could be mentioned that the sentence Every bottle is empty is sensitive to context and it indicates to a variant proposition relative to variant contexts of articulation. For instance, this might be due to the logical form of the sentence involves a variable whose value is the domain of quantification, and the importance of this variable differs according to contexts of articulation (John David Yule, 1985). In comparable, the sentence, in terms of pragmatics, to the letter means (semantically expresses) the wrong suggestion that every bottle in the universe is empty and there is some other non-semantic elaboration of the fact that in this event I am able to transfer the limited suggestion that every bottle in the flat is empty. Remarkable intuitive support for the pragmatic method exists for addressing these cases; after all, it is right that my wifes reply could be well, every bottle isnt empty; our guests just drunk all of the soft beverages in our flat. Surly, there is sense in which this reply achieves the things aimed at, although it is not useful; the pragmatic method has an excellent elaboration of this in terms of its claim that the original sentence is wrong in a literal sense. One who follows the pragmatic method has to say how a proposition P can be transferred by an articulation of a sentence, which, in the context, its meaning differs from the proposition P. This elaboration is provided in terms of specific rules running conversation, according to a Grecian version of the pragmatic method. The idea of Grice was that a person can transfer, in some articulation, a proposition by implicating it in a conversational way. Conversationally, a person involves a proposition p by an articulation when (nearly) the coming three conditions are met. The first, the talker is hypothesized to be collaborative in the sense that he is pursuing the maxims of conversation. Secondly, the supposition the conversationalist thinks p is needed to make his articulation match with the maxims of conversation. Thirdly, the conversationalist believes that (2) is right. 1 in the existing case, the articulation of a sentence, which means every bottle (in the universe) is empty, is an a rticulation of a sentence that is clearly wrong, and so breaks the Maxim of Quality. Thus, if we are to presume that the conversationalist is being collaborative, we have to presume that the conversationalist was seeking to get across some discrete, not clearly wrong, suggestion. In addition, it appears possibly that this suggestion should be related to the clearly wrong one that was literally indicated by the sentence; given the context, every bottle in the flat is empty is the proposition, which is the clear-cut option. Language Use Thought In the event of quantifier domain restriction, the elaboration of the phenomena can be created in events of applying language outside of conversations. Uses of language in thought are the most significant of such events. Assume that my before the end of the party, my wife went to sleep and that after leaving the last invitee, I say in a gloomy way to me every bottle is empty. Fascinatingly, this case looks parallel to the case mentioned above, in which I apply the same sentence in speaking. Just naturally, it would be represented the case as the one in which I said to myself that every bottle in the flat was empty since it would be to provide the identical description of my pronunciation, in speaking, of the similar sentence to my wife. However, it doesnt appear open, in spite of this resemblance to the same elaboration: sitting lonely after the party I was not involved in a speaking, and therefore was not expose to the maxims of conversation. In addition, this appears raise a doubt about the original Gricean elaboration of the articulation to my wife. An elaboration, which relays on characteristics limited to one, is ad hoc to the degree that the phenomena look the similar. According to the proponents of Grice, thinking is a type of conversation with oneself and thus it is ruled by the same maxims as conversations of several parties? Not very plausible. My use of Every bottle is empty during speaking with my wife carried the limited suggestion that every bottle in the flat is partly empty, Since I believed that she was able to see that the presumption, in which I thought this and needed to convey it by my articulation, was needed to make my articulation match with the traditions ruling the conversation. However, the use of Every bottle is empty in thinking cannot provide the same elaboration. Despite we offer that I count as the audience of my own articulation here, we should ask: is it actually the case that I am capable of applying this sentence to say to myself that every bottle in the flat is empty, just due to thinking that I am able to solving that the presumption, in which I think of this, is required to conform my articulation to myself with the traditions of conversation, and because of thinking additionally that I am aware that I am able to solving that I think this? From time to time, I could carry these surprising thoughts, although it just appears that I need to apply every bottle is empty in thought to have in mind that every bottle in the flat is empty. The debate, which proposed against the elaboration of Gricean of quantifier domain restriction, is simple: firstly, quantifier domain restriction occurs in uses of language in thought along with in communication. Secondly, the phenomena seem to be similar and thus they worth an integrated elaboration. Thirdly, the elaboration of Gricean doesnt hold good for cases of quantifier domain restriction in uses of language in thought. Hence, fourthly, instances of quantifier domain restriction in communication is also failed to be explained by the Griceans elaboration. Semantics that is based on Intentions An intention based semantics that is to say, a semantical theory according to which the meaning of an articulation is illustrated in terms of the psychological condition is meant to generate in an audience was proposed by Grice. The applying of language to communicate is concentrated by such semantics (Spencer et al, 2002; 74-91). Thus, Grice starts to make a try to separate a special type of meaning and he named this communicative meaning, or non-natural meaning (meaningNN). Natural vs. Non-natural meaning Natural Meaning [Non-cognitive meaning] Those spots mean rubella. Those didnt mean anything to me, but they meant rubella to the doctor. The recent budget indicates that we shall experience a tough year. Non-natural Meaning (MeaningNN) [Communicative meaning] Three rings on the bell indicate that the bus is complete. That note, Smith couldnt dispense with his problem and struggle, indicated that Smiths wife was more necessary to him. Grices attempt is to generate an account of meaningNN. Tests for MeaningNN Entailment X means that p necessitate that p, in cases of natural meaning, while in cases of meaningNN, there is no such necessity. For instance: Those spots denote rubeola, however he hasnt got rubella is self-conflicting. The three rings on the bell indicate that the bus is complete, however the bus isnt

Education in America: Separate and Unequal Essay examples -- Still Sep

The greatest country in the world still has problems evenly distributing education to its youth. The articles I have read for this unit have a common theme regarding our education system. The authors illustrate to the reader about the struggles in America concerning how we obtain and education. Oppression, politics, racism, and socioeconomic status are a few examples of what is wrong with our country and its means of delivering a fair education to all Americans. Doctor Benjamin Barber’s article The Educated Student: Global Citizen or Global Consumer? discusses how the schools are being attacked by advertising campaigns. Barber talks about the poor school districts being targeted by a company called Channel One. Channel One provides these less fortunate schools with computers, televisions, and other technology. In return the schools have to show the students a twelve minute video that contains three minutes of advertising. In my opinion, this means were trading out our textbooks for fashion and material things. I do not believe the upper class schools have to deal with the same inequalities as the lower class schools. Doctor Barber’s intentions in his writings are about educating people about empowering themselves through culture and education. Doctor Barber assumes that 9/11 would empower more people and help produce a better education system. Doctor Barber stated ‘’in the aftermath of 9/11, it was particularly tho se public-official-citizens. All citizens because in what they do, they are committed to the welfare of their neighbors, their children, to future generations.† (Barber 420). I believe that 9/11 has had more negative effects than positive, and education has not profited from the tragedy that occurred more than ten y... ...help make up a person’s ability, personality, and means rather than money. I feel the author is attempting to convey that class means everything when it comes to education. Mantsios lists several references and charts that show what the odds would be if you were low, middle, or high class to attend a university and what level of education you might obtain. All of these authors have made valid points. They have all provided examples and evidence that America is still unfair, segregated, and provides unequal opportunities for education. As an American, I think we are still fighting for our freedoms and rights, such as education. References Barber, Benjamin. The Educated Student: Global Citizen or Global Consumer ?. New York, New York: Longman,2007. Print. Kozol, Johnathan. Still Separate, Still Unequal. New York, New York: Longman,2007. Print.